• Calénnawn Grammar
• Basic punctuation
• Articles
• Plurals
• Personal pronouns
• Focus
• The verb: tense
• Word order
• The verb: nominal predicates
• Ellipsis of nouns
• Vocative
• Polite form, pejorative form, affectionate form, humble form
• Compound words and compound predicates
• Auxiliaries
• Ditransitive predicates
• Compound words to indicate gender
• Grouping
• The verb: imperative mood
• The verb: subjunctive mood
• Numerals and plurals
• Adjectives
• Comparisons
• Quantity
• Quality
• Negation
• Questions: forms
• Questions: types
• Exclamations
• Linkage
• 1. Appositive
• 2a. Restrictive
• 2b. Incidental
• 3. Abstraction
• 4. Indirect questions
• Aspect
• Aspect negation and expectation
• Conditionals
• The verb: conjugation
• State (under construction)
• Derivation
• Inverse voice
• Prepositions
• Some conjunctions
• Translating the verb "to have"
• Modals

Calénnawn Grammar

Basic punctuation

The onset, ', denotes the start of a paragraph or sentence (if it is the first one on a page, of a discourse, or the first one of a new speaker).

The full stop is used where a sentence ends.

The comma is used at a pause between two parts of a sentence, not implying any specific relationship between the two parts (these relationships should be expressed, if desired, using Discursives). For the usage of the various types of question marks (?1 ?2 ?3) and exclamation marks (!1 !2), see the sections on Questions: types and Exclamations for more details.

If different parts of a sentence are of a different type (statement, question type or exclamation type), the question or exclamation mark may be followed with a comma:

Articles

Calénnawn articles can be veridical or not. Veridical articles can be definite or indefinite. Articles can be used as object, subject, or to mark a predicate. Subject articles are split into epistemic and deontic.

• The epistemic definite article (the)
  
o (object so) is the definite article: it is a known thing to either speaker and/or listener. Therefore it corresponds to the definite (the) article in English.

O nolóti ófer. The vacation is good. (We both know what we are talking about) (or: I know which one I am talking about, but I choose not to name it) Épanaleya so pácelti. I see the island. often abbreviated to: Épanaleya s-pácelti. I see the island.

When this article is used with a mass noun, it refers to a known instance/amount of the noun:

Bésiše hi uncáno so folsobésse. They did not hear the laughter. O scáwn écennt s-abéssi. The human drank the beer. Épanaléya s-qúba. I see the water.

• The indefinite article (a/an)
  
For the subject, there is no indefinite article. For the direct object it is optionally translated as se.

Nolóti ófer. A/some vacation is good. (I know which one I am talking about, but I choose not to name it) A/some vacation is good. (But I'm not talking about a particular one I have in mind) Épanaleya se pácelti. I see an island. Épanaleya pácelti. I see an island.

• Mass/concept article
  
h /@/ (object fh /f@/) is the mass/concept article: it is used to denote a concept or general idea, or denotes a mass of something:

H nolóti ófer xu sónnti. Vacations are good for you. (In general) Énaletu fh qúba. I drink water. Hi écennt fh ranti. I don't like ranti-tea. sometimes abbreviated to: Hi écennt f-ranti. I don't like ranti-tea. H scawn xérder zawpósse lúna. Man walks on (the) Moon. h ðúgero money o fítri cor h fértirac the parts of "the" arial bike rúnta fh réfni to respect "the" woman

• Non-veridical/metaphorical article
  
u (object su) is the metaphorical article. It states that the noun is used non-veridical and/or as a metaphor.

Sónnti uncáno sun advégo cor nolóti. You hear the "president" of the vacation. Un advégo snáfu en!2 The "president" understands me!

Note that the article takes an -n here because advégo starts with a vowel.

• Predicate article
  
Predicate articles serve as a marker when there would otherwise be ambiguity as to which part of the sentence is the predicate and which is the subject or object. They can also be used to form observatives. Predicate articles can be definite (ðo), indefinite (ðe), mass/concept (ðh), or non-veridical (ðu).

Sónnti ðo síxo?1 Who are you? Fa ðon iw ba-pránes. He is my brother. Ðo fa. This is him. Fa ðe re-ánnawna. She is a teacher. Rando ðu šos. Rando is a "child". Ze ðh ránti. This is ranti. Ðe plúna!2 A customer! (observative)

• The deontic articles
  
Deontic articles are used for the subject of a sentence when the verb infers a necessity, or obligation. These articles will be further explained in the section on Modals.

Plurals

Plurals of substantives are formed by replacing the vowel in the last syllable with i (if the last vowel is i, with ii).

When used with numerals:

the singular is used after zero, one, fractions between zero and one, and qíði (how many?);

the plural is used with integer or fractional numbers greater than one.

Personal pronouns

The first person singular personal pronoun, e, is usually prefixed to the predicate when it is the subject of the sentence.

When the predicate starts with a vowel, it is possible to avoid a vowel cluster by using the alternate form el, which is normally not used as proclitic.

Calénnawn makes a difference between the proximate and obviative forms with the personal pronouns fa and ray. Normally, fa refers to the more topical part of the previous sentence, ray to the less topical one, provided they themselves are not references.

Furthermore, there is a difference between the pronouns óssi, which includes the speaker/speakers, but not the listener (and is therefore proximal), and muy, which includes the listener and is therefore regarded as distal:

See for some of the other personal pronouns also the section on Polite form, pejorative form, affectionate form, humble form.

Focus

The focus of the sentence is indicated by preceding it with mimá. In case the focus is a multi-word construct, it may optionally be terminated by mi.

The verb: tense

The tense in a sentence is conveyed by the words for "now", "in the past" and "in the future". The preferred location for these words is right in front of the predicate. Verbs are not conjugated for time.

The particles may, however, also be used as affixes to the subject, even if it is a name:

See also the sections on The verb: conjugation and Aspect.

Word order

The order of words in a sentence is relevant for its meaning. Basic simple word order is SVO, but the SOV variant is allowed as a creative or poetic variant, and is the preferred order in news announcements. Furthermore, higher educated class are inclined to use VOS order. Depending on the word order, ellipsis of the subject, object or both is possible.

However, interrogatives as object may be copied to the first place in the sentence. See the section on Questions: forms for more details.

In the following examples, Ø means an interrogative pronoun used as object, $ means one used as subject; D means a duplicate of the interrogative pronoun.

Other word orders (e.g. VSO, OVS, OSV) are not permitted.

Dropped subject or object are taken to be either unspecified or unknown to the listener.

The verb: nominal predicates

There is no verb "to be". Identity is expressed by using the relevant noun or adjective as a predicate.

Names, however, may never be used as a predicate. This is a difference between names and nouns.

use nalástu instead:

If two names have to be stated equal, use an appositive link word (see the section on Linkage):

When an adjective or a noun is used as a predicate, it cannot take an object:

use a preposition, link word or lo- construct (see below) instead:

When an article is needed for such a noun, the predicate articles ðo, ðe, ðh and ðu are used. These are also used when such a noun is accompanied with a possessive pronoun:

Existential constructs are also formed using the predicate article:

The ðu article is replaced by lu if the non-veridical meaning is needed for a real verb:

Plain verbs can never be used as subject or object. However, see Derivation

In the following sentences, the predicate can be unambiguously determined because (a) a verb must function as predicate, and (b) a noun as predicate cannot be accompanied by a direct object.

Ellipsis of nouns

Nouns may be left out, leaving just an adjective, possessive pronoun or article. In some cases, it is more comprehensible when the article is left in place. A "lone article" cannot be used directly before a predicate (whether verbal or nominal): use ze or a predicate article in such a case.

Vocative

The vocative ending is -o(l) (dropping a final vowel if present, which makes the l obligatory if that vowel was an o).

If the plural form ends in -i, the vocative plural is -il. If the plural form ends in -ii, the vocative plural is -iil.

consonant (sg or pl) -> consonant + -o(l)

Tim Tímo(l) Tim, .. šos šóso(l) child, .. šis šiso(l) children, ..

consonant + o (sg) -> consonant + -ol

Bóbo Bóbol Bobo, .. Rándo Rándol Rando, ..

consonant + vowel other than o (sg) -> consonant + -o(l)

bána báno(l) mister, .. réfni réfno(l) mrs/miss, ..

consonant + i (pl) -> consonant + -il

báni bánil sirs, .. ifúrti ifúrtil people, ..

consonant + ii (pl) -> consonant + -iil

réfnii réfniil ladies, .. ganúnii ganúniil mom and dad, ..

Some protocol words are colloquially used as suffixes (dropping a final vowel if present). This form is not used for the protocol words derived from e+verb.

Polite form, pejorative form, affectionate form, humble form

Polite form

The "honorative" or polite form is constructed by suffixing -(a)va to the predicate of which the subject is to be referenced politely, or -(a)vo when it concerns the object. This form expresses the speaker's honor, admiration, esteem or respect for the referent. The ending is preceded with -a- when the predicate ends in a consonant.

Advégo páratulava. The president (polite) reads. Pos panaléyava-na?1 Do you (polite) see (it)? O inárto bríqatava. His majesty the king is sleeping. Qon sónnti qon síncova?1 What do you (polite) want? (like: What does the lady want?) Émoraniva. I (polite, like pl.maj.: we) thank you. Émoranivo. I thank you (polite). El uncánovo baw. I hear you (polite). Fa cénntavo ray. He/she likes her/him (polite). El or bánxadayvo baw. I am going to tell you (polite). Bóboše orézuvo rèfni-inárta!2 Bobo fled from her majesty the queen! Scáwno, sónnti òfer-órrulamava fértirac. Human, you ride the arial bike well. Sónnti or nalétudayva-na drámor e?1 Will you drink with me?

If the referent (noun/name) to be honored is not the subject or object, then the referent is preceded with the word áva, usually affixed to the preposition (if present) and directly before the (possibly elided) article.

Obóllovo, áva bánol Mat-táge. Greetings, mr. Mattáge. Áva advégol, énoloti-sìnco. Mr. president, I want a vacation. Inártol, xegónnava-qoy!2 Your majesty the king, look at this. Éše babúpo táyva son inárta. I thought about the king.

Pejorative form

If a person or action is disliked or disrespected, the person, the verb, name, or pronoun may be prefixed with bir-.

E hi or báqindaday bir-báw!1 I'm not going to apologize to you! Sónnti bir-tredówc Pápinow. You "ruled" Pápinow. (You call this ruling?)

Affectionate form

When the sentence is addressed to a family member or close friend, the affection between the speaker and the listener is expressed by using a different personal pronoun: sóngo for people older than the speaker, sónna otherwise. Not using one of these forms to a family member is like saying, "You are no family of me". Furthermore, with seemingly incorrect use of sónna, age compliments can be made.

Re-ganúnol, ébibulme fénco. Sóngo or lúxciday-na fh baranúya?1 Mother, I'm hungry. Will you give some bread? Ba-rúnol, sónnagla xabásta-na drámor?1 Cousin, will you come along?

Humble form

It is also possible to take on a humble position when speaking about oneself. For this purpose exists the word étu, etymologically the diminutive for e (see Comparisons below).

Étu obóllovo baw, bánol. I (humble) greet thee (polite), sir. Hi rufóme-qoy éndatu!2 Don't hit me (humble).

Compound words and compound predicates

Verbs, nouns and adjectives may be combined with hyphens to form compound words. They bear a strong resemblance to the Lojban tanru. The last part in the compound may also be a noun or an adjective, in which case the compound word is subject to the rules under The verb: nominal predicates.

Primary stress falls on the last compound element, except when the subject is prefixed 'é-', in which case the last compound element takes secondary stress. Secondary stress is indicated on the syllable where the compound element would normally get primary stress (nalètu-sínco).

The meaning of the compound word is taken to be that of the last part of the compound, modified by the first part, e.g.:

Auxiliaries

Auxiliaries are used by making compound predicates with the auxiliary as the second (modified) part. The object of the main verb may be used directly as the object of the verb-auxiliary compound.

Examples:

The inverse voice of such a compound predicate is marked on the main verb:

Ditransitive predicates

There are no ditransitive verbs in Calénnawn. However, when compound predicates are formed, it is possible that both elements of the compound predicate require a direct object. In such a case, both direct objects may occur in the sentence.

Note: The direct objects are normally put in the same order as the elements of the compound predicate.

Examples:

Compound words to indicate gender

In compounds of bána and réfni, these may be abbreviated to ba- and re-:

Grouping

If there are three or more elements in the compound, they are right-grouped:

The verb: imperative mood

The imperative is formed by making a compound verb with -qoy (do!) at the end. The primary stress does not shift. The imperative is used with an epistemic subject personal pronoun or epistemic subject article.

qoy may, however, also be used as a regular verb:

The verb: subjunctive mood

The subjunctive is formed by in the same way as the imperative: by making a compound verb with -qoy. However, the subjunctive is used with a deontic subject personal pronoun or deontic subject article.

Subjunctive mood is also used after the conjunction úrne (so that).

If the subject of the sentence following úrne is identical to the subject of the first sentence, the preposition xum with an action (fo(l)-) may be used instead:

Anc béltu s-bórmo xum fofésni spis. Anc buys a fish to eat it.

Numerals and plurals

(Cardinal) numerals are placed after the corresponding noun, e.g.

The numeral system is base-6. Numbers are transcribed with a leading underscore. If the number starts with the digits '10', these may be replaced by a special digit, transcribed as '6'. In Calénnawn, this is called a 'big ten' (o qána xówa).

Fractions are made with the (accented) prefix cú-.

If tar is not attached to a numeral, put it after the article of the complement:

If tar is used as a preposition in this way, a direct object case may follow it:

Adjectives

Adjectives go before the noun and may be stacked. Note that an adjective must be compounded with a noun when the noun is used as a predicate.

Comparisons

Comparisons may be done by quantity or quality. The object being compared with is marked using the preposition sínu.

When the addition of a suffix would give rise to a new -tt- or -dd- combination, which could be pronounced wrongly, these combinations are broken with a hyphen.

Quantity

Positive comparison is formed using -ro (as many as). Comparatives are formed using the affixes -mu (less) and -ma (more). Superlatives are formed with -sil (least) and -dac (most).

Applied to numerals, they mean "less-than", "more-than" and "exactly".

Muy stóma. We (are (with)) more than three. Rándo páratul se máni xómu. Rando read less than _10 books. Anc cóweš se ganúnii élro. Anc asks exactly two parents.

Applied to a noun, they modify amount:

Še fa astóri se ba-scúgema. She gave birth to more sons. Bóbo páratul se mániro sínu Rándo. Bobo read as many books as Rando.

Applied to a verb or predicate, they modify the repetitive temporal aspect:

Faše astórima se ba-scúge. She gave birth to a son more often. Bóbo páratulro s-mána sínu Rándo. Bobo read the book as many times as Rando. cf.: Bóboše páratul mat s-máni. Bobo read the books four times. Bóboše páratul s-máni mat. Bobo read four books.

Quality

Positive comparison is formed using -uy (equally). Comparatives are formed using the affixes -tu (less) and -ta (more). Superlatives are formed with -tto (least) and -taš (most).

Applied to an adjective or an adjective as predicate:

Bóbo qánauy sínu Anc. Bobo is equally big as Anc. Fa (ðo) qánataš. He is the biggest (one). Fa qánataš sínu óssi. He is the biggest one of us. Inárta bélonta sínu e. The king is smaller than me.

Applied to a verb or a noun, they modify intensity/quality/degree. -tu and -ta may then be translated by "less-of" and "more-of", respectively. The exact interpretation, however, depends on the meaning of the verb.

Ésincotto se xísti. I am the one who wants troubles least. Xegónnata-qoy!1 Look harder! Bési yúfetaš. They sing the best. Sónnti péntatu-na? Are you less than a friend? Sónnti péntata-qoy. Be more of a friend/a better friend.

Compare:

Negation

Negation is expressed by hi, which can go at the beginning of the sentence or just before the predicate:

The opposite of hi is á, often accented to indicate its extra stress:

A certain part of a sentence can be "ruled out" with hes, which states that the sentence is not true, but might have been true when the marked part would change:

When a question cannot correctly be answered with either "yes" or "no", because the question is based on an incorrect assumption, the question may be answered with lëu:

Questions: forms

Questions can have either of three forms:

Having an interrogative pronoun (the "fill in the blank" form). If the sentence does not start with the pronoun, it is often copied to the beginning of the sentence, but this is not required.

colloquial (using subject pronouns for object): Qo bési nalétu qo?1 What do they drink? Qo nalétu bési qo?1 What drinks them? formal (using separate object pronouns): Qon bési nalétu qon?1 What do they drink? Qo nalétu biw qo?1 What drinks them? cf.: Bési nalétu qon?1 What do they drink? Fa tána lómo?1 Where does he come?

Non-pronoun question words may be moved to the beginning of the sentence without copying:

Fágla tána mlo?1 How will he come? Mlo fágla tána?1 How will he come?

The "is this true?" question, formed by appending -na to the word that is being questioned for its truth value. The particle -na is appended with a hyphen, exept in the compounds hína and ána. If a negative answer is expected, the question is often formulated in negated form.

Sónnti nalétu-na?1 Are you drinking? Sónnti hi nalétu-na?1 Aren't you drinking? Sónnti tof panaléya-na?1 Do you see him? Sónnti tof hi panaléya-na?1 Don't you see him? Sónnti tof ána panaléya?1 Do you see him? Sónnti tof hína panaléya?1 Don't you see him? Sónnti-na tof panaléya?1 Do you see him? Sónnti tóf-na panaléya?1 Do you see him?

Alternative form of the "is this true?" question, the hína form. The difference with the previous form is the fact that the word hína or ána is appended at the end of the sentence, as if it were a sentence on its own.

This form of question is an intermediate form between making a plain statement, and asking a plain question. Depending on the point of view, one might say that the hína-question is either a statement of which the speaker is not certain/is in doubt, or that it is a question to which the speaker expects a certain answer.

Sónnti panalúta, hína?1 You know (it), don't you? Faše baw bánxa, hína?1 He spoke to you, didn't he?

If the main sentence has negation, either hína or ána can be used:

Hi Bóbo bánxa biw be qúmpatme, hína/ána?1 Bobo didn't speak with them, did he?

In either case, the response will be unambiguous:

Hi. No (he didn't speak with them). Á. Yes (he spoke with them).

But for clarity, the following forms are also used:

Áhi. Indeed (he didn't speak with them). Áha. On the contrary (he spoke with them).

Questions: types

Questions can have either of three intentions described below. These intentions are conveyed using three different intonations, denoted by three different question marks.

A type 1 question is an informing one: asking information from someone, because the speaker wants to know the thing being asked. Also, rhetorical questions are expressed using this type.

Qon Bóbo fésni qon?1 What is Bobo eating? Rándo še bánxa biw, hína?1 Rando spoke to them, didn't he? Éfesni-sìnco. I want to eat. Sónntiše fésni o folméllar-umper, hína?1 You did eat during the stay, didn't you?

The interrogative pronoun (or, if absent, the predicate) is stressed by pronouncing it at somewhat higher pitch than the rest of the sentence.

A type 2 question is meant for verifying the knowledge of the listener: are you able to give me the correct answer?

Advégo nalástu qon?2 What is the name of the president? Dull lómo on ólmo advégo še áduxanec?2 When did the last president die?

The interrogative pronoun or predicate is stressed by pronouncing it at significantly lower pitch than the rest of the sentence.

The type 3 question is for verifying the speaker's own knowledge or impressions: did I hear/understand it correctly? This type is most often used in reaction to a statement.

Type 3 questions are often, but by no means always, used with the hína-form.

Éfesni-sìnco. I want to eat. Sónnti fèsni-sínco-na?3 You want to eat? (Did I hear/understand you correctly?) Máfo éfesni-sìnco. I want to eat now. Sónnti hes máfo fèsni-sínco, hína?3 Surely you don't want to eat now, right? Qon sónnti qon síncova?1 What do you [polite] want? Qon ésinco qon?3 What do I want?

The (first) interrogative pronoun or predicate is stressed by pronouncing it at significantly higher pitch than the rest of the sentence, dropping pitch immediately thereafter.

Exclamations

Calénnawn distinguishes between two types of exclamations.

A type 1 exclamation is used for plain commands:

Báqinda-qoy!1 Apologize! Áduxan-qoy!1 Drop dead!

A type 2 exclamation is used for emotional utterances, caused by e.g. enthousiasm, fear, or wonder. Type 2 is also used for commands, if the command arises from a strong emotional reaction.

Sónnti mágont!2 You are swimming! El áduxanes!2 I am dying! Sémur-qoy!2 Watch out! Áduxan-qoy!2 Drop dead!

Since type 2 exclamations convey an emotion, as they are induced by emotion, there is no special intonation or stress pattern required to distinguish between the two types. The two exclamation marks are merely a method of conveying the intonation that has risen from the emotional origin of the sentence itself.

Linkage

In Calénnawn, the so-called "link words" are used to link sentences together like the conjunction "and", and denote which parts of the composing sentences overlap. Link words can be either:

• 1. appositive
  
These link words specify identity between an argument of the first sentence and an argument of the second. In both sentences, they have the same importance, e.g.:

I speak to you and say "Hello."

• 2a. restrictive
  
Specify that of the possible referents of the argument, only a subset is in effect, e.g.:

That is the book that you recommended.

• 2b. incidental
  
Gives additional information about the argument, e.g.:

Tomorrow I'll return your book (which I enjoyed reading).

• 3. abstraction
  
Links an abstraction to the subject or object of another clause, e.g.:

He tells me that he is going to leave.

• 4. indirect questions
  
Links to the answer of an indirect question, e.g.:

He tells me where he will be going. He tells me if he will leave.

Sentences which do not take place during the same time may still be linked.

All link words have a systematic classifier of the form [letter(s)|letter(s)] . These will be specified in the explanatory text below.

When compounding link words with prepositions, postpositions (like -i, -pe, and -umper) are treated as prepositions.

1. Appositive

• [s|s.a] Linking subject to subject (appositive)
  

Étana be yúfe. I come and sing. I come singing. cf.: Éyufe-tàna. I singingly-come. I come singing. Étana sno yúfe. I come and someone sings. Fa nalétu be moráni baw. He drinks and thanks you. Fa zéfnat so vássi be xabásta Bóroq. He leaves home and goes to Boroq. Rándo lúxci mána xu Bóbo be qúmpatme itt léla. Rando gives Bobo the book and says, "Here you are."

Some verb-constructs are formed with be, forming an idiom:

bánxa be qúmpatme to say something to someone cóweš be qúmpatme to ask someone something

Therefore, some constructs may seem unnecessary (superfluous). The reason that they are used is because the be construct is an idiom. Any marginal change in meaning depends on the meanings of the words:

Anc bánxa Bóbo. Anc spoke to Bobo. Anc bánxa Bóbo be qúmpatme. Anc told Bobo something.

• [s|o.a] Linking subject to object (appositive)
  

Síxo tánas ba épanaleya? Who is coming (there) that/and I see?

• [o|s.a] Linking object to subject (appositive)
  

É sísson panaléya pélo tána? Who do i see that/and comes there? Épanaleya pélo nalétu. I see someone drinking. Fa panaléya pélo pos nalétu. He sees you drinking. Fa panaléya pésso pélo nalétu. He sees you drinking. Bánxa-qoy óssi be qúmpatme-qoy pélo qo pássenu s-véqamo-i. Tell us what there is in the district.

• [o|o.a] Linking object to object (appositive)
  

Épanaleya s-tacsóy yon sónnti spir. I see the lizard that/and you know. Épanaleya yon sónnti spir s-tacsóy. I see the lizard that/and you know. (identical)

• [p|s.a] Linking prepositional phrase to subject (appositive)
  

prep-bwoy links the prepositional object of prep in the first sentence to the subject of the second one.

Rándo lúxci mána xu Bóbo xu-bwoy qúmpatme itt emoráni. Rando gives Bobo the book and (he) says, "Thank you." Rándo lúxci mána xu-bwoy Bóbo qúmpatme itt emoráni. Rando gives (him) the book and Bobo says, "Thank you." (identical)

If there is exactly one explicit prepositional phrase in the first sentence, the preposition need not be repeated on the link word.

Rándo lúxci mána xu Bóbo bwoy qúmpatme itt emoráni. (ditto)

• [p|o.a] Linking prepositional phrase to object (appositive)
  
• [s|p.a] Linking subject to prepositional phrase (appositive)
  
• [o|p.a] Linking object to prepositional phrase (appositive)
  
• [p|p.a] Linking two prepositional phrases (appositive)
  

2a. Restrictive

• [s|s.r] Linking subject to subject (restrictive)
  

On ólmo palúyxo fes gla nogugúyðo me ðon áduxo. The last enemy that will be destroyed is death.

• [s|o.r] Linking subject to object (restrictive)
  
• [o|s.r] Linking object to subject (restrictive)
  

Fa snáfu so vil félo nalástu calénnawn. He understands the language that is Calennawn.

• [o|o.r] Linking object to object (restrictive)
  
• [p|s.r] Linking prepositional phrase to subject (restrictive)
  

Évoyude fwém-pe nopanaléya baw. I live at what is seen by you.

• [p|o.r] Linking prepositional phrase to object (restrictive)
  

Évoyude fém-pe sónnti panaléya. I live at what you see.

• [s|p.r] Linking subject to prepositional phrase (restrictive)
  
• [o|p.r] Linking object to prepositional phrase (restrictive)
  
• [p|p.r] Linking two prepositional phrases (restrictive)
  

prep1-prep2-fáro links the prepositional object of prep1 in the first sentence to the prepositional object of prep2 in the second one.

Rándo šówgas irgipòsse-i-fáro sónnti crébas xáyxan-i. Rando is leaning against the crate that you are sitting in. Rándo šówgas irgipósse xáyxan irgipòsse-i-fáro sónnti crébas. (ditto)

It is not allowed to leave out any of the compounding prepositions.

[o|p.i]

2b. Incidental

• [s|s.i] Linking subject to subject (incidental)
  

Rándo les iw pénta me uncáno e. Rando, who is my friend, hears me.

• [s|o.i] Linking subject to object (incidental)
  

Éuncano Rándo lélo gowdrá ðówba. I hear Rando, who is with his dog.

• [o|s.i] Linking object to subject (incidental)
  
• [o|o.i] Linking object to object (incidental)
  
• [p|s.i] Linking prepositional phrase to subject (incidental)
  

prep-dwaf links the prepositional object of prep in the first sentence to the subject of the second one.

Sónnti páratul ran-dwaf épanaleya tof. You read in front of me, who sees him. Sónnti páratul ran e ran-dwaf panaléya tof. (ditto)

If there is exactly one explicit prepositional phrase in the first sentence, the preposition need not be repeated on the link word.

Sónnti páratul ran e dwaf panaléya tof. (ditto)

• [p|o.i] Linking prepositional phrase to object (incidental)
  

prep-daf links the prepositional object of prep in the first sentence to the direct object of the second one.

Sónnti páratul ran-daf épanaleya tof. You read in front of him whom I see. Sónnti páratul ran fa ran-daf épanaleya. (ditto)

If there is exactly one explicit prepositional phrase in the first sentence, the preposition need not be repeated on the link word.

Sónnti páratul ran fa daf épanaleya. (ditto)

• [s|p.i] Linking subject to prepositional phrase (incidental)
  

prep-dwar links the subject of the first sentence to the prepositional object of prep in the second one.

Épanaleya tof ran-dwar sónnti páratul. I see him, me-who you read in front of. Panaléya tof ran-dwar sónnti páratul ran e. (ditto)

If there is exactly one explicit prepositional phrase in the second sentence, the preposition need not be repeated on the link word.

Panaléya tof dwar sónnti páratul ran e. (ditto)

• [o|p.i] Linking object to prepositional phrase (incidental)
  

prep-dar links the object of the first sentence to the prepositional object of prep in the second one.

Épanaleya tof ran-dar sónnti páratul. I see him who you read in front of. Épanaleya ran-dar sónnti páratul ran fa. (ditto)

If there is exactly one explicit prepositional phrase in the second sentence, the preposition need not be repeated on the link word.

Épanaleya dar sónnti páratul ran fa. (ditto)

• [p|p.i] Linking two prepositional phrases (incidental)
  

prep1-prep2-dáro links the prepositional object of prep1 in the first sentence to the prepositional object of prep2 in the second one.

Rándo šówgas irgipòsse-i-dáro sónnti crébas xáyxan-i. Rando is leaning against the crate, the one you are sitting in. Rándo šówgas irgipósse xáyxan irgipòsse-i-dáro sónnti crébas. (ditto) Sónnti páratul ran fa ran-dramor-dáro épanaleya. You read in front of him, who I see with. Sónnti páratul ran-dramor-dáro épanaleya drámor fa. (ditto)

It is not allowed to leave out any of the compounding prepositions.

3. Abstraction

• [s|fact] Linking subject to fact abstraction
  

Ófer zúno sónnti qáncabas. It is good that you are playing.

• [o|fact] Linking object to fact abstraction
  

Fa panaléya zóno pos nalétu. He sees that you are drinking. Éšanxa zóno sónnti qáncabas. I like that you are playing.

• [fact|s] Linking fact abstraction to subject
  

Sónnti qáncabas zúnes ófer. The fact that you are playing, is good.

• [fact|o] Linking fact abstraction to object
  

Sónnti qáncaba zónes éšanxa. "That you are playing, I like."

• [s|evnt] Linking subject to event abstraction
  

noruncáno en úmmo sónnti qáncabas. It has reached me (inverse of to hear) that you are playing.

• [o|evnt] Linking object to event abstraction
  

Épanaleya émmo sónnti qáncabas. I see that you are playing.

• [evnt|s] Linking event abstraction to subject
  

Sónnti qáncabas úmmi noruncáno en. You are playing, has reached me. (inverse of to hear)

• [evnt|o] Linking event abstraction to object
  

Sónnti qáncabas émmi épanaleya. You are playing, I see.

4. Indirect questions

• [o|q]
  
• [q|o]
  
• [s|q]
  
• [q|s]
  
• [p|q]
  
• [q|p]
  
• [q|q.a]
  
• [q|q.r]
  
• [q|q.i]
  
• [r.q|q]
  
• [i.q|q]
  

Aspect

The aspect of a sentence denotes the characteristics of the time-interval in which the action takes place.

When the verb stem ends in a consonant other than -l or -r, the endings -s and -c are suffixed as -es and -ec. The endings -day, -vra and -pru are infixed just before the last consonant, e.g. lórivral.

The semelfactive specifies that an action is happening at a specific moment and takes nearly no time to complete, in contrast with the progressive, which specifies that the action is taking place and takes up some time extending before and after the moment being discussed.

Še Bóbo uncánoc se bólitol. Bobo heard a sound. Anc òcco-xérders. Anc was worrying while walking. Rándogla páratuls se mána. Rando will be reading a book. cf.: Bési cénntes s-folméllar. They are enjoying the stay. Bési cennt s-folméllar. They like the stay. Anc še babúpoc itt "Égla ðóyge". Anc thought, "I will lose" Anc še babúpos tay bru re-ganúni. Anc thought about her mother.

The initiative aspect is used when an action is starting. The cessitive is used for the finishing of an action.

Anc óccoday. Anc is beginning to worry. Íhimu bána áduxadayn. The old man is beginning to die. Éparatuvral. I stop reading. Éše hi páratuvral. I didn't stop reading. Bóbo afíntiday plúqo fértirac. Bobo begins to steer his arial bike.

The inchoative specifies that an action is going to take place, but has not started yet, whilst the perfective is used when the action has finished and is not going on any more.

Bóbo or zéfnadayt, hína Bóbol?1 Bobo is going to leave, right Bobo? Íhimu réfni or ánnavra so šos. The old woman has taught the child. Iw réfni-ganúni or astórivra Bóbo. My mother begat Bobo. Óssiše or voyúdeday. We settled here.

The donecative specifies that an action, which has started in the past, extends to a point in time which lies in the speaker's future. It is allowed to compound ózay with še. This compound is preferred over the compound with the personal pronoun.

Bóbo ózay afíntiday. Bobo has been steering. Óssi ózayše voyúdeday za rágo-umper xo. We had been living here for _10 years.

The dumitive specifies that an action, which will have finished in the future, is already going on and has started at a point in time in the speaker's past. It is allowed to compound ólay with gla.

Fe ólay tredówcevra. He will stop ruling.

The habituative ending -mo indicates that the action takes place regularly.

Sónnti fésnimo ráca?1 Do you normally/regularly/habitually eat ráca? Rándo váha mágontemo. Rando swims much.

Finally, the semperative indicates that the statement is not confined to a specific time, but is a truth that continues to be. Note that this may be subjective, so that the meaning of the sentence can still differ for the past, present and future tenses.

Íhimu réfnii ànna-gáwnapru. Old women can teach. Rofíltu gla hes loxístapru. The world will have no troubles.

The word ólpo means that the action is not taking place continuously, but irregularly instead. It may be combined with any of the above mentioned aspects except the semelfactive. There is no preference as to where it should go in the sentence.

Rándo ózayše páratulday ólpo mána sto áwn-umper élxo el. Rando has been reading three books in _22 days.

Aspect negation and expectation

pla and derivatives are used to describe that a process was expected to have started/ended, but that this is not actually the case. The affirmative derivatives are used when the process is going on at the referenced time, the negated derivatives, like hépla, otherwise.

Negatives of the donecative and dumitive are not used.

Compare aspect negation with regular negation:

Conditionals

There are five types of conditionals. All of these are characterized by the conditional ending -li on the verb in the conditional clause.

The five types will be explained by comparing them to conditionals in English:

• Zero conditional, always true
  
The aspect marker -pru is used to indicate that the consequence is always true.

H mástuv nofoycéco-li, fa noriséhult-pru. When ice is heated, it melts.

• Zero conditional, habitually
  
This conditional uses the habituative ending -mo.

O vefóððu cor poháws gowsuédu-li, If the price of a product falls, h zis dindóye gowsuzáw-mo. demand for it usually rises.

• First conditional, real or likely
  

Faše órrulam-li ráyvo išinëé, If she took that plane, famáfo gowí s-véqamo. she is in the district by now. Fa órše órrulamvra-li ráyvo išinëé, If she took that plane, famáfo gowí s-véqamo. she is in the district by now. Hi fa tríse-li, If he doesn't hurry up, fágla gowšopé evów. he will arrive late. Sónnti stóni-li tof, If you find her, bànxa-qúmpatme-qoy tof zóno epanaleya-sínco tof. tell her I want to see her.

• Second conditional, unlikely
  
The consequential clause has a deontive subject:

Écowlo-li fh ðúgero laf, If I won much money, ílmon béltu s-cásort sum fa. I'd buy her a car.

• Contrary to fact
  
All of these use the irrealis marker -he on the verb in the consequential clause.

This category combines the two categories of English:

• Second conditional, contrary to present fact
  

E ðo advégo-li, If I were the president, élulutrut-he f-tawgáfo. I would lower taxes.

• Third conditional, contrary to past fact
  

Bésiše ássi-li fh ðúgero láfma, If they had had more money, bési órše béltuvra-he se xiwd ðéysic. they would have bought a new house. Sónntiše ddútigovra-li en, If you had warned me [then], hi máfo égowi-he se mútto. I would not be in prison now.

The verb: conjugation

Mainstream Calénnawn has lost most of its verb conjugations. Verb conjugation is nowadays only used in the districts Bóroq and the southern parts of Pápinow, and by the educated class in all districts. In mainstream use, the different forms used for proximal and distal are discarded and replaced by the ones used for central.

The suffixes to a predicate or compound predicate are normally applied in the following order:

  1.  conjugation suffix
  2.  aspect suffix
  3.  honorative suffix
  4.  imperative suffix

Conjugation of xabásta (go) as an example of a verb with vowel ending and órrulam ('betravel') as one with a consonant ending:

notes:

State (under construction)

State is indicated by a compound verb or one of the special prepositions ttif or útay. There is no explicit way of indicating the distinction between having and entering a state. This difference must then be concluded from the meaning of the verb itself.

Derivation

This paragraph is under construction

Inverse voice

The inverse voice of a verb is constructed using the prefix no(r)-. Just as with verbs in the active voice, stating the object or subject of the inverse voice is not required.

Prepositions

As a rule, prepositions are placed in front of the noun construct. However, the prepositions for "at" (pe), "in" (i) and "during" (úmper) are enclitics, and are coupled to the referent using a hyphen.

Some prepositions may be compounded (see below). The compounding elements are joined without a hyphen. Compound prepositions take stress on the last part (last preposition compound element). Compounds of pe, i and úmper are not enclitics any more, but instead regular prepositions.

Some prepositions may be modified using the degree markers -mu, -ma, -sil and -dac (see below). Modifying a preposition in this way does not change whether the preposition is used as an enclitic or not.

Prepositions are divided into three categories: those pertaining to time, to space and those having an abstract meaning.

Time prepositions are fairly straightforward. Some of these are related closely to verb aspects. Some time prepositions may be modified by the degree markers -ma, -mu, -dac and -sil. The higher the degree in which the preposition is used, the closer (in time) is the action to the referent. dull is the exception to this rule.

Rándo ózayše voyúdeday zá-pe šeyt rágo xo. Rando has been living here for _ten years. Anc še nalétu abéssi evów o nolóti. Anc drank a beer after the vacation. Anc še nalétu abéssi evówma o nolóti. Anc drank a beer directly after the vacation. Bóbo hes nalétu xúlebma vinafínti. Bobo did not drink directly before steering.

Space prepositions are themselves divided into three categories: general, geographical and gravitational.

All space prepositions may be compounded with the preposition prefixes su- (denoting movement to the indicated position), nu- (denoting movement away from the indicated position) and vu- (denoting a static location up to and including the indicated position).

Some space prepositions may be modified by the degree markers -ma, -mu, -dac and -sil. The higher the degree in which the preposition is used, the closer (in space) is the action to the referent. pe is the exception to this rule.

The gravitational prepositions may be compounded with the preposition pósse.

Anc xérder on ívolar-pe. Anc is walking in/through the street. Bána xérder o cinówne-i. The man walks in the forest. Bána xérder suí o cinówne. The man walks into the forest. Bána xérder supé o cinówne. The man walks towards the forest. Bána xérder húyap o cinówne. The man walks at the other side of the forest. Bána xérder húyla on ísutoy. The man walks at the other side of the statue. Anc voyúdes dáxe óssi. Anc lives to the south of us. Anc xérder suí-sulá cinówne. Anc is walking through the forest (i.e. into and out of). Bóbo masórbu zawpósse o télboxo. Bobo is standing on top of the building. Bóbo nélates zawpósse o télboxo. Bobo is jumping on top of the building. Bóbo nélatec suzawpósse o télboxo. Bobo jumps onto the building. Bóbo nélatec nuzawpósse o télboxo. Bobo jumps from the building. Faše ray rufómec suowmilopósse (ra) lóniðey. He hit him at the right side of (his) face. Vinqopécio mágont supéma o bórmo. The servant swims towards the fish. Vinqopécio máfo mágont o bórmo-pema. The servant now swims nearer to the fish. Advégo xérder supé muy nuláma o cinówne. The president walks to us from far away from the forest.

Note that some prepositions use the referent as reference point, some use the speaker.

By compounding the (basic or vu-prefixed) preposition with gow-, a verb is formed that indicates "being located at/up until"; for gowsu- and gownu-, the corresponding movement verbs are formed.

Bóbo masórbu šíntan télboxo mef télboxo. Bobo is standing behind the building, on this side of the building. (apparently the speaker is also standing behind the building, and Bobo is standing between the speaker and the building). Sónna voyúde šíntan on úttaco. You live behind the coast (i.e. on land). Bru pácelti gowrán úttaco. His island is before (i.e. off) the coast. O qúba gowsušíntan ray réyfaz el. The water goes/splashes behind his ears. O qúba gowvušíntan ray réyfaz el. The water is up to behind his ears. O cinówne dródis vurán télboxo. The wood is growing up to in front of the building. Égowpe. I am here/present. Égowi. I am inside. Ddon gownupévra Úrða. John has left Earth. Gowsuzawpósseva-qoy [dómme]!1 Please sit down.

Some abstract prepositions have already been mentioned (sínu).

Sónntiše sáfoleys-na ttif xísta? Did you wake up in trouble?

(under construction)

It is allowed to elide the preposition object. The preposition then functions like an adverb.

Some conjunctions

There are two words for translating "also". pey references the part of speech immediately preceding it, ówco always references the subject:

pey is also used as a conjunction "and" between noun phrases:

However, for sentences, sno is used:

Translating the verb "to have"

The verb "to have" can be translated in either of four ways:

When used as an auxiliary verb: translate using the perfective verb aspect:

Bóbo or bánxavra. Bobo has spoken. Sónna or fésnivra. You have eaten.

When referring to possession: ássi.

Bóbo ássi se fértirac. Bobo possesses/has an arial bike. Rándo ássi télboxo hort. Rando owns no buildings.

When referring to items carried, worn or held: ninálo.

Bóbo ninálo se fértirac. Bobo has a bike (probably borrowed or rented). Éninalo h qúba. I have got water. Sónnti ninálo-na se nawína?1 Do you have a media?

bibúlme when it concerns (1) a body/body parts, (2) a mental state like hunger, thirst, fear, nauseousness, or sleep, or (3) a physical state like illness, fever, a wound, etc.

Rándo bibúlme ráyfaz el sínu muy. Rando has two ears like we. Re-ganúnol, sóngo bibúlme-na fénco?1 Mother, are you hungry? Iw pénta bibúlme sen irbóce!2 My friend has a fever! note this idiom: Iw re-ganúni bibúlme so scúge. My mother is pregnant.

lo-substantive when there is a (non-possessing) relationship that can be expressed with a single substantive.

Rándo lofértirac. Rando has-a-bike (e.g., he is the driver, but not the possessor). Letálpe loóšabi. The soldier has-a-commander. Cas ífnavo loóšabi. Everyone has-a-commander. Rándo hi lovássi. Rando has no home. O déyhot loadvégo. The metropolis has a president.

The verb constructed with lo- is transitive and its object can be used to specify who or what fulfills the indicated role. This object may be definite or indefinite:

Fértirac lovinafínti Rándo. The bike has-for-driver Rando. Calénnawn lovibánxa Tim. Calennawn has-for-speaker Tim. Tim lovíl Calénnawn. Tim has-for-language Calénnawn. Advégo loletálpe tésma. The president has more than one soldier. O déyhot loadvégo s-bána Mat-táge. The metropolis has mr. Mattage as/for president.

Zévo fértirac nolo<onderpand> en. This bike is a <onderpand> for me. Zévo fértirac nolo<vervoermiddel> en. This bike is a <vervoermiddel> for me. Zévo fértirac nolo<investment> en. This bike is a <investment> for me.

Modals

Modals express aspects like probability, necessity and obligation. Modals are divided in two categories: epistemic and deontic modals. Modals can be modified according to grade.

Epistemic modalities express an impersonal judgement of a real situation. Deontic modalities express an impersonal judgement of a hypothetical situation.

When a deontic modality is used, the deontic version of the subject personal pronoun or the deontic version of the subject article must be used.

Epistemic probability:

Epistemic acceptability:

Epistemic evidentiality:

Deontic obligation:

Deontic necessity:

See also The verb: subjunctive mood and The verb: imperative mood.

Author: René Uittenbogaard. The deontic/epistemic distinction, was taken from The Lexical Semantics of a Machine Translation Interlingua by Richard Morneau. The chapter on modals was inspired by the same source.

Conversion date: 2008-05-17

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